タイトル:Facemasks in the COVID-19 era: A health hypothesis(COVID-19時代のフェイスマスク。健康の仮説)
著者:Baruch Vainshelboim
著者の所属:Cardiology Division(心臓学部門), Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System(退役軍人省のヘルスケアシステム)/Stanford University(スタンフォード大学), Palo Alto, CA, United States. Electronic address: baruch.v1981@gmail.com.
53人の外科医を対象とした研究では、大手術の際にフェイスマスクが使用され、生理的な悪影響が確認された。フェイスマスク着用60分後、酸素飽和度は1%以上低下し、心拍数は約5拍/分増加した[45]。また、158人の医療従事者を対象とした別の研究では、COVID-19の発生によりN95フェイスマスクの着用が義務化されたため、81%(128人)の医療従事者が勤務中に新たな頭痛を発症したと報告されています。N95フェイスマスクを1日4時間以上使用した人では、勤務シフト中に頭痛を発症する可能性が約4倍高く[オッズ比=3.91, 95% CI (1.35-11.31) p = 0.012]、N95装着者の82.2%が10分から50分以内にすでに頭痛を発症していました[46]。
布製フェイスマスクに関しては、4週間の追跡調査を行ったRCTで、14の病院の1607人の参加者を対象に、臨床的な呼吸器疾患、インフルエンザ様疾患、実験室で確認された呼吸器ウイルス感染症の発生率に対する布製フェイスマスクの効果を、医療用マスクとマスクなしとで比較しました[19]。その結果、臨床的な呼吸器疾患と実験室で確認された呼吸器ウイルス感染症の発症率について、布製マスクの着用、医療用マスクの着用、マスクなしの間に差はありませんでした。しかし、インフルエンザ様疾患については、布製マスク着用者の方が13倍以上高いリスク(Relative Risk = 13.25 95% CI (1.74 to 100.97))を持つという大きな弊害が認められました[19]。この研究では、布製マスクには、保湿性、再利用性、濾過性の低さ、感染リスクの増加など、健康と安全に関する重大な問題があり、布製マスクの使用を推奨しないと結論づけています[19]。
1. Fisher E.M., Noti J.D., Lindsley W.G., Blachere F.M., Shaffer R.E. Validation and application of models to predict facemask influenza contamination in healthcare settings. Risk Anal. 2014;34:1423–1434. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
2. World Health Organization. Advice on the use of masks in the context of COVID-19. Geneva, Switzerland; 2020.
3. Sohrabi C., Alsafi Z., O’Neill N., Khan M., Kerwan A., Al-Jabir A. World Health Organization declares global emergency: A review of the 2019 novel coronavirus (COVID-19) Int J Surg. 2020;76:71–76. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
5. Fauci A.S., Lane H.C., Redfield R.R. Covid-19 – Navigating the Uncharted. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:1268–1269. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
6. Shrestha S.S., Swerdlow D.L., Borse R.H., Prabhu V.S., Finelli L., Atkins C.Y. Estimating the burden of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) in the United States (April 2009-April 2010) Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52(Suppl 1):S75–S82. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
7. Thompson W.W., Weintraub E., Dhankhar P., Cheng P.Y., Brammer L., Meltzer M.I. Estimates of US influenza-associated deaths made using four different methods. Influenza Other Respir Viruses. 2009;3:37–49. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
8. Centers for Disease, C., Prevention. Estimates of deaths associated with seasonal influenza — United States, 1976-2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010,59:1057-62. [PubMed]
9. Richardson S., Hirsch J.S., Narasimhan M., Crawford J.M., McGinn T., Davidson K.W. Presenting Characteristics, Comorbidities, and Outcomes Among 5700 Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 in the New York City Area. JAMA. 2020 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
10. Ioannidis J.P.A., Axfors C., Contopoulos-Ioannidis D.G. Population-level COVID-19 mortality risk for non-elderly individuals overall and for non-elderly individuals without underlying diseases in pandemic epicenters. Environ Res. 2020;188[PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
11. American College of Sports Medicine . Sixth ed. Lippincott Wiliams & Wilkins; Baltimore: 2010. ACSM’s Resource Manual for Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Priscription. [Google Scholar]
13. Kenney W.L., Wilmore J.H., Costill D.L. 5th ed. Human Kinetics; Champaign, IL: 2012. Physiology of sport and exercise. [Google Scholar]
14. World Health Organization. Advice on the use of masks in the community, during home care and in health care settings in the context of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) outbreak. Geneva, Switzerland; 2020.
15. Sperlich B., Zinner C., Hauser A., Holmberg H.C., Wegrzyk J. The Impact of Hyperoxia on Human Performance and Recovery. Sports Med. 2017;47:429–438. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
16. Wiersinga W.J., Rhodes A., Cheng A.C., Peacock S.J., Prescott H.C. Pathophysiology, Transmission, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review. JAMA. 2020 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
17. Zhu N., Zhang D., Wang W., Li X., Yang B., Song J. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:727–733. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
18. Poston J.T., Patel B.K., Davis A.M. Management of Critically Ill Adults With COVID-19. JAMA. 2020 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
19. MacIntyre C.R., Seale H., Dung T.C., Hien N.T., Nga P.T., Chughtai A.A. A cluster randomised trial of cloth masks compared with medical masks in healthcare workers. BMJ open. 2015;5[PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
21. Hazinski M.F., Nolan J.P., Billi J.E., Bottiger B.W., Bossaert L., de Caen A.R. Part 1: Executive summary: 2010 International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science With Treatment Recommendations. Circulation. 2010;122:S250–S275. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
22. Kleinman M.E., Goldberger Z.D., Rea T., Swor R.A., Bobrow B.J., Brennan E.E. American Heart Association Focused Update on Adult Basic Life Support and Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Quality: An Update to the American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation. 2018;137:e7–e13. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
23. Lurie K.G., Nemergut E.C., Yannopoulos D., Sweeney M. The Physiology of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. Anesth Analg. 2016;122:767–783. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
24. Chandrasekaran B., Fernandes S. “Exercise with facemask; Are we handling a devil’s sword?” – A physiological hypothesis. Med Hypotheses. 2020;144[PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
25. Konda A., Prakash A., Moss G.A., Schmoldt M., Grant G.D., Guha S. Aerosol Filtration Efficiency of Common Fabrics Used in Respiratory Cloth Masks. ACS Nano. 2020;14:6339–6347. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
26. Leung N.H.L., Chu D.K.W., Shiu E.Y.C., Chan K.H., McDevitt J.J., Hau B.J.P. Respiratory virus shedding in exhaled breath and efficacy of face masks. Nat Med. 2020;26:676–680. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
27. Gao M., Yang L., Chen X., Deng Y., Yang S., Xu H. A study on infectivity of asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 carriers. Respir Med. 2020;169[PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
28. Smith J.D., MacDougall C.C., Johnstone J., Copes R.A., Schwartz B., Garber G.E. Effectiveness of N95 respirators versus surgical masks in protecting health care workers from acute respiratory infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2016;188:567–574. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
29. Chou R., Dana T., Jungbauer R., Weeks C., McDonagh M.S. Masks for Prevention of Respiratory Virus Infections, Including SARS-CoV-2, in Health Care and Community Settings: A Living Rapid Review. Ann Intern Med. 2020 [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
30. Chu D.K., Akl E.A., Duda S., Solo K., Yaacoub S., Schunemann H.J. Physical distancing, face masks, and eye protection to prevent person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2020;395:1973–1987. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
31. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Implementation of Mitigation Strategies for Communities with Local COVID-19 Transmission. Atlanta, Georgia; 2020.
32. Isaacs D., Britton P., Howard-Jones A., Kesson A., Khatami A., Marais B. Do facemasks protect against COVID-19? J Paediatr Child Health. 2020;56:976–977. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
33. Laveneziana P., Albuquerque A., Aliverti A., Babb T., Barreiro E., Dres M. ERS statement on respiratory muscle testing at rest and during exercise. Eur Respir J. 2019;53 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
34. American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory, S ATS/ERS Statement on respiratory muscle testing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:518–624. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
35. Kao T.W., Huang K.C., Huang Y.L., Tsai T.J., Hsieh B.S., Wu M.S. The physiological impact of wearing an N95 mask during hemodialysis as a precaution against SARS in patients with end-stage renal disease. J Formos Med Assoc. 2004;103:624–628. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
36. United States Department of Labor. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Respiratory Protection Standard, 29 CFR 1910.134; 2007.
37. ATS/ACCP Statement on cardiopulmonary exercise testing Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167:211–277. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
38. American College of Sports Medicine . 9th ed. Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health; Philadelphia: 2014. ACSM’s guidelines for exercise testing and prescription. [Google Scholar]
39. Balady G.J., Arena R., Sietsema K., Myers J., Coke L., Fletcher G.F. Clinician’s Guide to cardiopulmonary exercise testing in adults: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2010;122:191–225. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
40. Ferrazza A.M., Martolini D., Valli G., Palange P. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing in the functional and prognostic evaluation of patients with pulmonary diseases. Respiration. 2009;77:3–17. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
41. Fletcher G.F., Ades P.A., Kligfield P., Arena R., Balady G.J., Bittner V.A. Exercise standards for testing and training: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2013;128:873–934. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
42. Guazzi M., Adams V., Conraads V., Halle M., Mezzani A., Vanhees L. EACPR/AHA Scientific Statement. Clinical recommendations for cardiopulmonary exercise testing data assessment in specific patient populations. Circulation. 2012;126:2261–2274. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
43. Naeije R., Dedobbeleer C. Pulmonary hypertension and the right ventricle in hypoxia. Exp Physiol. 2013;98:1247–1256. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
44. Zheng G.Q., Wang Y., Wang X.T. Chronic hypoxia-hypercapnia influences cognitive function: a possible new model of cognitive dysfunction in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Med Hypotheses. 2008;71:111–113. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
45. Beder A., Buyukkocak U., Sabuncuoglu H., Keskil Z.A., Keskil S. Preliminary report on surgical mask induced deoxygenation during major surgery. Neurocirugia (Astur) 2008;19:121–126. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
46. Ong J.J.Y., Bharatendu C., Goh Y., Tang J.Z.Y., Sooi K.W.X., Tan Y.L. Headaches Associated With Personal Protective Equipment – A Cross-Sectional Study Among Frontline Healthcare Workers During COVID-19. Headache. 2020;60:864–877. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
47. Schneiderman N., Ironson G., Siegel S.D. Stress and health: psychological, behavioral, and biological determinants. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2005;1:607–628. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
48. Thoits P.A. Stress and health: major findings and policy implications. J Health Soc Behav. 2010;51(Suppl):S41–S53. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
49. Haslam N. Dehumanization: an integrative review. Pers Soc Psychol Rev. 2006;10:252–264. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50. Cohen S. Social relationships and health. Am Psychol. 2004;59:676–684. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
51. Leigh-Hunt N., Bagguley D., Bash K., Turner V., Turnbull S., Valtorta N. An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public Health. 2017;152:157–171. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
52. Holt-Lunstad J., Smith T.B., Layton J.B. Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS Med. 2010;7[PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
53. Shor E., Roelfs D.J. Social contact frequency and all-cause mortality: a meta-analysis and meta-regression. Soc Sci Med. 2015;128:76–86. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
54. McEwen B.S. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:171–179. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
55. McEwen B.S. Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: central role of the brain. Physiol Rev. 2007;87:873–904. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
56. Everly G.S., Lating J.M. 4th ed. NY Springer Nature; New York: 2019. A Clinical Guide to the Treatment of the Human Stress Response. [Google Scholar]
57. World Health Organization. World health statistics 2018: monitoring health for the SDGs, sustainable development goals Geneva, Switzerland; 2018.
58. World Health Organization. World Cancer Report 2014. Lyon; 2014.
59. Wiggins J.M., Opoku-Acheampong A.B., Baumfalk D.R., Siemann D.W., Behnke B.J. Exercise and the Tumor Microenvironment: Potential Therapeutic Implications. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2018;46:56–64. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
60. Ashcraft K.A., Warner A.B., Jones L.W., Dewhirst M.W. Exercise as Adjunct Therapy in Cancer. Semin Radiat Oncol. 2019;29:16–24. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
61. Bray F., Ferlay J., Soerjomataram I., Siegel R.L., Torre L.A., Jemal A. Global Cancer Statistics 2018: GLOBOCAN Estimates of Incidence and Mortality Worldwide for 36 Cancers in 185 Countries. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018 [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
62. Brooks S.K., Webster R.K., Smith L.E., Woodland L., Wessely S., Greenberg N. The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: rapid review of the evidence. Lancet. 2020;395:912–920. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
63. Galea S., Merchant R.M., Lurie N. The Mental Health Consequences of COVID-19 and Physical Distancing: The Need for Prevention and Early Intervention. JAMA Intern Med. 2020;180:817–818. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
64. Izaguirre-Torres D., Siche R. Covid-19 disease will cause a global catastrophe in terms of mental health: A hypothesis. Med Hypotheses. 2020;143[PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
65. Kudielka B.M., Wust S. Human models in acute and chronic stress: assessing determinants of individual hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and reactivity. Stress. 2010;13:1–14. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
66. Morey J.N., Boggero I.A., Scott A.B., Segerstrom S.C. Current Directions in Stress and Human Immune Function. Curr Opin Psychol. 2015;5:13–17. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
67. Sapolsky R.M., Romero L.M., Munck A.U. How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocr Rev. 2000;21:55–89. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]